The anti-tumor immune response includes both acquired and innate immunity, with T cells playing a central role. Recent advances in immunotherapy have shown great promise, but only a small percentage of patients benefit. The low efficacy of immunotherapy is often linked to the tumor microenvironment (TME), which hampers immune responses. Tumor cells undergo metabolic reprogramming, significantly affecting the TME and immune cell function. Tumor cells not only deplete nutrients from the TME, limit...

The adoptive infusion of natural killer (NK) cells is a promising immunotherapy for cancer, viral infections, and aging-associated diseases. Clinical responses have been linked to enhanced cytotoxicity and sustained NK cell persistence in vivo. While preconditioning and/or cytokines support improvement in vivo persistence of infused NK cells. However, the effects of ex vivo expanded natural killer (eNK) cells infusion on peripheral blood NK cells-without these interventions-remain unclear....